The Buddha: humanist, rationalist and social reformer

By Mohit Palagiri

Mohit is a humanist and a political activist. In India, he writes for the English-language magazine Modern Rationalist. This article primarily focuses on the idea that Buddha was not merely a monk or a decorative figure in yoga classes or homes. He was a social reformer and an early advocate of rationalism and equality who transformed religious discourse in South Asia and beyond.

Dedication

I would like to dedicate this article to a school located in Vyasarpadi, a slum in Chennai, called Ambedkar Paguhthiruvu Padasalai (Ambedkar Rational School). It is run by my friend, Advocate Sarathkumar, and founded on the principles of BR Ambedkar and Periyar, emphasising a humanist and democratic way of life. There is no hierarchy in the school, political thought is actively taught, and leadership opportunities are given to the students.

B.R. Ambedkar (public domain image)

The place of the Buddha in the Indian humanist ecosystem

“I solemnly assure you that I will not die as a Hindu.” These words were spoken by BR Ambedkar, the first law minister of India and a social reformer, at the Yeola Conference in 1935 (a gathering of Dalits held in Yeola, a town in present-day Maharashtra, organised by the Independent Labour Party). After attempting to introduce reforms into Hinduism, including temple entry rights for lower-caste Dalits — who were usually prohibited—Ambedkar declared his intention to leave the Hindu fold. After this declaration, many religions — including Hinduism—approached Ambedkar in an attempt to persuade him to change his mind. However, he rejected all pleas, as he believed that every religion is founded upon discrimination and irrationality or superstition. Sikhism once appeared to be a viable option due to its emphasis on equality, but incidents of casteism and both political and religious rigidity led Ambedkar to reject it.

Some time later, Ambedkar met the pioneering Italian-born Buddhist missionary known as Bhikkhu Lokanatha and he corresponded with the Mahabodhi Society, a Buddhist revival organisation founded in 1891. As a result of these interactions, Ambedkar realised that the early teachings of Buddha were rooted in equality, liberty, fraternity, democratic values, and rational thinking.

He was not the first, however, to see Buddhism as a path of emancipation for the oppressed castes. Well before Ambedkar, in South India, the Dalit intellectual and anti-caste activist Iyothee Thass Pandithar (c. 1845–1914) had already sought to revive Buddhism among the marginalised.

His movement was supported by the Indian communist pioneer M. Singaravelu (Malayapuram Singaravelan) who, unlike traditional Marxists, also focused on the issue of caste discrimination. The form of Buddhism they embraced was Theravada Buddhism, prevalent in countries such as Sri Lanka, Thailand and Myanmar.

"Navayana Buddhism is secular, non-superstitious, based on equality, and closely aligned with humanist principles."

Building on these earlier efforts but departing from traditional Buddhist schools, Ambedkar reinterpreted and revitalised Buddhism for the modern age, particularly for Dalits. In 1956 he launched a new Buddhist sect called Navayana, which means "New Vehicle" or "New Way", in which the Buddha is regarded as a guru or teacher rather than a god. Navayana is secular, non-superstitious, based on equality, and closely aligned with humanist principles. Traditional concepts such as karma, afterlife, samsara, nirvana, meditation, and the Four Noble Truths were either reinterpreted or omitted from Navayana. Many Navayana Buddhists consider Ambedkar's book The Buddha and His Dhamma to be their primary religious text.

On the historic day of 14 October 1956, Ambedkar converted to Buddhism along with 380,000 Dalits, taking 22 vows that included opposition to the Brahmanical system and a commitment to upholding the humanitarian values of the Buddha. This mass conversion became a powerful political force and was supported by leaders such as Periyar, CN Annadurai, Mangu Baba, and other progressive figures. Sadly, just three weeks later, Ambedkar died of complications related to diabetes and other long-standing health issues. He was 65 years old.

Henceforth, this movement led many humanists and rationalists to view the Buddha not merely as a religious figure. The Indian humanist ecosystem began to see the Buddha as a humanist, largely due to Ambedkar’s reinterpretation and the foundation of early Buddhist teachings.

Early life of the Buddha

According to Stephen Law in Humanism: A Very Short Introduction (2011), India had schools of humanist thought even earlier than those of the Greeks or Confucius. Among the teachers associated with this early tradition is the Buddha. I will be discussing the Buddha from a rational perspective, setting aside the myths and supernatural elements that have been attributed to him over time. While absolute certainty is not possible, the life of the Buddha is generally regarded by historians as more historically grounded than that of figures such as Moses.

The Buddha was born c. 563 BCE as Siddhartha Gautama into the royal Shakya clan in Lumbini (present-day Nepal) and raised in Kapilavastu, believed to be in either Nepal or Uttar Pradesh. His father, Suddhodana, was a chieftain of the Shakya clan, and his mother was called Mayadevi. According to traditional accounts Siddhartha’s upbringing was intentionally sheltered from knowledge of suffering to prevent him from becoming a spiritual seeker — as astrologers had predicted he might. Despite his privileged upbringing, Siddhartha was a thoughtful child who felt a deep inner void. At age 16, he married a girl called Yashodhara and they had a son, Rahula.

During a rare excursion beyond the palace walls, Siddhartha encountered scenes of human suffering for the first time: an elderly man, a person afflicted with illness, and a funeral procession. Soon afterwards, he observed an ascetic calmly meditating — seemingly untouched by suffering. These encounters had a profound impact on him, prompting intense reflection on the nature of life, suffering, and the possibility of inner peace. Although the birth of his son Rahula was imminent, Siddhartha resolved to leave the palace in search of truth (Satya Anveshana) and a path to liberation from suffering.

Siddartha’s truth seeking

According to traditional sources, Siddhartha went to a riverbank where he cut off his hair, dressed in a simple robe, and joined an ascetic group led by Brahmins. Like many spiritual seekers in India at the time and since, he followed the traditional path of extreme austerity — embracing pain, poverty, and homelessness — in pursuit of spiritual truth. He endured severe hardships, including exposure to heat and cold, near-nakedness, and extreme fasting, which reduced his body to a skeleton. Eventually, he realised that this path had not brought him any closer to enlightenment. His practice of extreme fasting ended when a village girl named Sujatha offered him rice pudding, which he accepted.

Siddhartha then adopted a path that came to be known as the Middle Way — a life of balance that rejected both extreme self-denial and excessive indulgence. This more moderate approach helped him regain his health and allowed for deeper clarity and reflection. While meditating under a tree at Bodh Gaya, in present-day Bihar, India, he experienced what is traditionally described as awakening or enlightenment. He is said to have realised the nature and causes of suffering, and how it might be overcome. This can be seen as an example of rational inquiry: rather than blindly accepting existing teachings or rituals, he critically examined human experience to discover a practical path to inner freedom. Following this, he began sharing his insights with ordinary people — many of whom were excluded or neglected by the Brahmin priesthood. His teachings, later known as the Dharma, included the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, the Panchasila (five ethical precepts for daily life), and the Paramitas — ten virtues to be cultivated. It was after this transformative experience and his decision to teach that Siddhartha became known as the Buddha, meaning the "awakened one".

The Four Noble Truths

1. Life inevitably involves suffering

2. Suffering is caused by craving and rooted in ignorance

3. Suffering will cease when craving ceases

4. There is a way to realise this state, which is the Noble Eightfold Path.

The Noble Eightfold Path

1. Right View (freedom from superstition and delusion; understanding life realistically)

2. Right Intention (commitment to ethical and mental self-improvement; goodwill and harmlessness)

3. Right Speech (speaking truthfully and kindly; avoiding lies, gossip, and harmful words)

4. Right Action (behaving ethically by avoiding harm to others; includes non-violence and honesty)

5. Right Livelihood (earning a living in a way that does not harm others or oneself)

6. Right Effort (cultivating positive states of mind and letting go of negative ones)

7. Right Mindfulness (developing awareness of the body, feelings, thoughts and surroundings)

8. Right Concentration (focusing the mind through meditation to develop inner stillness and insight)

Five ethical precepts of Panchasila

1. Abstain from causing harm to any living being

2. Abstain from stealing

3. Abstain from speaking untruth

4. Abstain from sexual misconduct

5. Abstain from intoxicating drinks and drugs

The Ten Paramitas (Perfections)

1. Generosity – Giving freely without expecting anything in return

2. Morality – Living ethically by avoiding harm and doing good

3. Renunciation – Letting go of attachment to pleasures and desires

4. Wisdom – Seeking understanding and insight

5. Energy – Making a continuous, enthusiastic effort

6. Patience – Practising tolerance and forbearance

7. Truthfulness – Being honest and sincere in all actions

8. Determination – Staying committed to one's goal

9. Loving-kindness – Cultivating goodwill toward all beings, even enemies

10. Equanimity – Remaining balanced and detached from likes and dislikes

Nirvana and karma

In Buddhism, nirvana is a mental state in which all suffering and craving come to an end, leading to freedom from attachment and the cessation of karmic consequences. Karma refers to the causes and effects of one's own actions. It differs from the Hindu concept of karma, which more rigidly ties actions in this life to results in the next life. Buddhism emphasises the ethical intention behind actions, rather than ritual or caste-based duties.

Impact

The Buddha’s teachings as outlined above represented a revolution in spiritual practice at a time when Indian society was dominated by a traditional and regressive form of Brahmanism. A single section of society, the dominant Brahmin caste, had controlled religion and excluded the majority from access to temples, priesthood and positions of power.

I will now focus on the particular features of the Buddha’s teachings.

The Buddha as a rationalist 

Early Buddhism did not rely on supernatural beings or creation myths. There are many instances in which the Buddha explicitly rejected belief in a creator god or divine origin of the universe. From the beginning, the Buddha demonstrated a rational and questioning mindset, showing the courage to challenge traditional beliefs. In Pearson’s Religions of the World, Buddhism is described as the world’s first non-theistic religion. The Buddha did not claim to be a god, the son of God, or a prophet, but instead identified himself simply as a teacher or guide.

In his first sermon, recorded in the Dharmachakra Pravartana Sutta, the Buddha did not ground his teaching in belief in God or any supernatural being. Instead, he based it on direct human experience and the realities of life. When asked about metaphysical questions — such as the origin of the universe, the nature of the soul, or whether the world is eternal — a Brahmin named Pothapada pressed the Buddha for answers. The Buddha replied that he held no firm opinion on such speculative matters. His primary concern, he explained, was not abstract theories but the practical path of Dharma and the alleviation of human suffering.

In Buddha or Karl Marx (1957), B.R. Ambedkar reflects on his reading of the Tripiṭaka, the foundational scripture of Theravāda Buddhism, and draws several key conclusions. He believed that religion was essential for a free society — but not all religions were equally valuable. For Ambedkar, a worthwhile religion had to engage with the realities of life rather than revolve around abstract theories of God, the soul, heaven, or the creation of the universe. He argued that it was misguided to place God at the centre of religion or to make the salvation of the soul its primary aim. True religion, according to the Buddha, did not reside in sacred texts alone — it sought to transform society and improve the human condition. The Buddha taught that the world was governed by the law of causation, not by divine intervention or supernatural design.

Using the respectful title of "Shakyamuni" meaning "Sage of the Shakya clan", the Buddhist delegation at the 1993 Parliament of the World’s Religions in Chicago made the following declaration:

“Shakyamuni Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was not God or a god. He was a human being who attained full Enlightenment through meditation and showed us the path of spiritual awakening and freedom. Therefore, Buddhism is not a religion of God. Buddhism is a religion of wisdom, enlightenment and compassion. Like the worshippers of God who believe that salvation is available to all through confession of sin and a life of prayer, we Buddhists believe that salvation and enlightenment are available to all through removal of defilements and delusion and a life of meditation. However, unlike those who believe in God who is separate from us, Buddhists believe that Buddha which means ‘one who is awake and enlightened’ is inherent in us all as Buddha nature or Buddha mind.”

Buddhism promoted logical reasoning and intellectual inquiry, which helped inspire the establishment of ancient centres of learning such as Nalanda in present-day Bihar and Taxila near modern-day Islamabad in Pakistan. These early universities became renowned for their rigorous scholarship and attracted students from across Asia. Lambert Schmithausen, a retired professor of Buddhist Studies, noted that “scepticism is the earliest doctrine of Buddhism, and cautious optimism is present”. According to Pearson’s Religions of the World, Buddhism is grounded in a realistic outlook on life rather than metaphysical speculation.

The Buddha as a reformer

Although the Buddha is often portrayed — especially in the Western world — as a peaceful monk who simply meditated, this image is incomplete. Even in India, many still hold this simplified view, but it does not reflect the full picture. The Buddha actively challenged the social inequalities of his time, and his teachings reflect a process of personal and societal reform.

He opposed Brahmanism in significant ways, which led Dr BR Ambedkar to describe Indian history as a long-standing conflict between Brahmanism and Buddhism. In Buddha or Karl Marx, Ambedkar—drawing on the Tripiṭaka—highlighted the Buddha’s commitment to equality, arguing that a person's worth is defined by their actions, not their birth. He emphasised that people should aspire to high ideals rather than take pride in high-caste origins. Ambedkar also stressed the Buddha’s belief in universal access to learning, the idea that nothing is Sanatan (eternal), and that all things are subject to change. Brotherhood, compassion, and ethical living were central to his teachings. In one discourse, the Buddha advised his followers not to depend on rites and rituals, reinforcing his rational and ethical focus.

In contrast, Brahmanism upheld a rigid social hierarchy based on the caste system. It taught that society was divided into higher and lower castes, with Brahmins — the priestly class — considered the most noble by birth. According to this tradition, only Brahmins were permitted to study the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of Hinduism, while those from lower castes — particularly Shudras, the labouring and servant class — were denied access. Brahmanism also emphasised ritualism and the performance of rites and ceremonies, and it promoted fixed religious duties and social roles under the concept of Sanatan Dharma (the Eternal Order). The Buddha rejected these rigid divisions. At a time when Shudras and women were often excluded from temples and forbidden from taking up priesthood, he opened the Sangha — the monastic community — to all, regardless of caste or social status. His egalitarian approach stood in sharp opposition to the exclusivity of Brahmanical religion, offering a path based on ethical conduct, personal effort, and universal compassion.

As the Buddha began to preach his teachings, many were drawn to his message and sought to follow him. He emphasised character and ethical conduct over birth or social status, welcoming men from all backgrounds into the Sangha — including sweepers, barbers, so-called “untouchables”, and Brahmins alike. Buddhism was also remarkable for its early inclusion of women in religious life, and it is often credited as the first religion to formally ordain female monks. The first women to join the Sangha were the Buddha’s aunt and foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, and his wife, Yashodhara. Although initially hesitant, the Buddha agreed to their ordination after Gotami and 500 women demonstrated their commitment by shaving their heads, donning yellow robes, and walking to him on foot. His teachings also inspired transformation in people from all walks of life, including criminals, wanderers, and even warlike rulers or tribal chieftains, many of whom joined the Sangha or adopted Buddhist principles in part.

As Ambedkar noted in a speech delivered in Kathmandu, Nepal: “There is Dukkha in the world.” Dukkha is a central concept in Buddhism, often translated as “suffering”, but it also includes a broader sense of dissatisfaction, hardship, and distress — including the kind experienced through poverty and injustice. Although the Buddha did not use modern terms like “exploitation”, his recognition of Dukkha reflected a deep concern for the suffering of ordinary people. In this way, he can be seen as one of the earliest spiritual teachers to highlight the condition of the poor. The Buddha viewed humanity as a single community and aspired to bring about happiness and well-being for all.

The Buddha actively promoted Ahimsa, or non-violence — a principle that calls for refraining from causing harm to any living being. For the Buddha, non-violence was not merely about avoiding physical aggression, but about cultivating compassion and restraint. He strongly opposed animal sacrifices, particularly when animals were killed needlessly in rituals meant to appease gods. He also criticised hunting for sport or pleasure. However, he did not insist on strict vegetarianism for all. Monks were permitted to eat meat that was offered to them, provided the animal had not been killed specifically for their benefit. For lay people, while vegetarianism was encouraged as a compassionate ideal, it was not mandated; the focus remained on avoiding cruelty and unnecessary harm.

When it comes to matters of war and justice, the Buddha emphasised truth and fairness, teaching that "the offender must be punished, and the innocent must have freedom." In the Tipiṭaka, war is generally condemned, but it is suggested that if conflict arises, it must be in defence of truth and justice — not conquest or domination. Buddhism, despite its commitment to non-violence, played a significant role in the development of martial arts, particularly through the figure of Bodhidharma, a South Indian Buddhist monk believed to have travelled to China and influenced the Shaolin tradition.

However, some critics — particularly certain Brahmin priests and right-wing commentators — argue that the emphasis on Ahimsa (non-violence) made Indian civilisation vulnerable to foreign invasions and centuries of subjugation. This debate continues to spark reflection on the balance between moral ideals and political realities.

Critics who blame foreign influence for India’s historical subjugation should also reflect on internal complicity. It was Indian rulers who invited Muhammad Ghori into the subcontinent, paving the way for centuries of Islamic rule. During the 1857 revolt against the British, many Hindu kings and zamindars sided with the colonial power. Even Aurangzeb, often portrayed as a staunchly orthodox Islamic ruler, exempted Brahmins from taxation. And who staffed the colonial bureaucracy? It was Indian babus — local administrators — who helped maintain the machinery of British rule.

Ultimately, the Buddha taught that true social reform begins with individual transformation. To change the world, he said, one must first reform one’s own mind.

The Buddha as democrat

The Buddhist Sangha (the monastic community) was governed by one of the most democratic systems of its time, with the Buddha himself participating as a member — functioning more like a facilitator or guide than an authoritarian leader. The Sangha operated on principles of collective decision-making, including the use of secret ballots, and held regular assemblies in which all members had a voice. Historical accounts suggest that even during the Buddha’s lifetime, leadership within the Sangha was shared, with two monks at times serving as co-heads. Some sources propose that the Buddha himself favoured a republican style of governance.

In a speech delivered in Jalandhar, BR Ambedkar remarked that long before the rise of European democracy, India had already developed democratic institutions through its Buddhist Sanghas.

Later stages

Many ordinary people turned away from the Vedic (now often called Hindu) religion and embraced Buddhism. His teachings appealed especially to those marginalised by caste hierarchies. Over time, even kings and chieftains adopted Buddhism and supported its spread within their realms. A major turning point came in the 3rd century BCE when Emperor Ashoka the Great (ruled c. 268–232 BCE) converted to Buddhism following the devastating Kalinga War. Under his patronage, much of the Indian subcontinent was influenced by Buddhist thought and values, and Buddhism spread as far as Sri Lanka and Central Asia.

However, Buddhism eventually declined in India due to a combination of complex factors, which merit a separate article and deeper study. One of the earliest setbacks came in the 2nd century BCE when Pushyamitra Shunga, a Brahmin military general who founded the Shunga dynasty around 185 BCE, overthrew the Mauryan dynasty. He is alleged to have persecuted Buddhists, ordered the destruction of monasteries, and placed bounties on the heads of monks, dealing a severe blow to the Buddhist establishment.

Later, internal philosophical divisions contributed to the weakening of Buddhism in India. The original teachings splintered into various sects, and while the Theravada (formerly referred to as Hinayana) tradition retained much of the early emphasis on rationality and personal discipline, other branches increasingly incorporated elaborate rituals and cosmologies — at times becoming more ritualistic than the Brahmanism they once opposed.

More recently, in a troubling departure from the Buddha's core message of compassion and non-violence, some self-identified Buddhist movements have become associated with extremist nationalism. In Sri Lanka, certain Buddhist monks have played a role in inciting violence against minority communities, including Tamil Hindus, Muslims, and Christians. Similarly, in Myanmar, some Buddhist leaders and groups have been linked to the persecution of Rohingya Muslims. These developments reflect political and ethnic tensions more than the spirit of early Buddhist ethics, highlighting how religious identity can be distorted for nationalist or sectarian ends.

Over time, the resurgence and influence of Brahmanical traditions contributed to Buddhism adopting more ritualistic forms, which marked a departure from its original rational and egalitarian foundations. Ironically, although many orthodox Brahmins initially viewed the Buddha as a heretic, he was later assimilated into the Hindu pantheon as the ninth avatar of Vishnu — despite the fact that the Buddha had explicitly rejected the notion of a creator god. As Brahmanical texts such as the Manusmriti, Parasara Smriti, and other Dharmashastras gained prominence, they entrenched a rigid social hierarchy that deeply demoralised Shudras and women by prescribing strict roles and reinforcing their subordination.

The final blow to institutional Buddhism in India came with a series of invasions by certain Islamic rulers from the 12th century onwards. These invaders destroyed many of the remaining Buddhist monasteries and centres of learning, including the renowned universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. As a result, large numbers of Buddhist monks and scholars migrated to regions such as Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Southeast Asia — where Buddhism survived and continued to evolve in new cultural contexts.

Conclusion

In this article, I have sought to present the Buddha as a humanist figure from ancient times. He should not be viewed merely as a religious figure, but as someone who questioned authority, stood for social reform, and advanced a philosophy that challenged the dominant ideologies of his era. Even today, there are Brahmin priests who continue to criticise Buddhist philosophy, and acts such as the Taliban’s destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas in 2001 stand as symbolic assaults on rational and progressive thought.

The Buddha represents more than just a philosophy — he represents a way of life. He taught us to see a person as human first, before classifying them by caste, gender or belief. I am convinced that he was one of the greatest humanists of his time. While many rightly celebrate thinkers such as Socrates, Aristotle and Epicurus, I believe the Buddha deserves equal recognition within the humanist tradition.

It is my dream to develop this work into a more detailed book in the future.